CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
2.1
The Concept of Speaking.
Speaking
is one of important aspects that should be mastered by the students in learning
language. Through speaking, the students can express their idea, feeling, and
opinion by producing sounds or utterances. It makes them able to communicate
and interact with the society by using the language.
According
to Bygate (2001:16), speaking is physically situated face to face interaction:
usually speakers can see each other and so can refer to the physical context
and use a number of physical signals to indicate, for instance, attention to
the interaction, their intention to contribute and their attitude towards what
is being said. Then, Bailey (2003:48) says that speaking is a process of
producing verbal utterance which is done to deliver meaning. It can be
concluded that speaking is a process in sharing idea and opinion in oral
language which is situated face to face interaction for making communication in
the society.
In
addition Chaney in Kayi (2006) says that speaking is a process of building and
sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non verbal symbols in a variety
of context. Verbal symbols involve producing or uttering words through talking.
While non verbal symbols involve gestures, facial expression, eye contact, and
body language. All of these aspects influence in the speaking process.
Speaking
can be categorized into some types. Brown (2004:141) explains some basic types
of speaking. (1) Imitative, the ability to imitate a word or phrase or possibly
a sentence. During this activity, a number of prosodic, lexical, and
grammatical properties of language will be included in the criterion
performance. (2) Intensive, the production of short stretches of oral language
designed to demonstrate competence in a narrow band of grammatical, phrasal,
lexical, or phonological relationship. (3) responsive, it includes interaction
and test comprehension but at the somewhat limited level of very short
conversation, standard greetings and small talk, simple requests and comments
and the like. (4) Interactive, interaction can take the two forms of
transactional language, which has the purpose of exchanging specific
information or interpersonal changes, which have the purpose of maintaining
social relationship. (5) Extensive, extensive oral production task includes
speeches, oral presentations and storytelling, during which the opportunity for
oral interaction from listener is either highly limited or ruled out
altogether.
In
mastering speaking ability, there are some components that should be considered
by the students. The components influence the way they speak by using the
language. According to Cohen (1994:266), there are some important components in
speaking ability. (1) fluency; smooth flow of speech with the use of rhetorical
devices to mark discourse pattern. (2) grammar; control of complex and simple
construction. (3) pragmatic competence; use of conversation devices to get the
message across and to compensate for gaps. (4) pronunciation; degree of
influence of native-language phonological features. (5) sociolinguistic
competence; use of appropriate social registers, cultural references, and
idioms. (6) vocabulary; breadth of vocabulary and knowledge of vocabulary in
field of interest or expertise. By knowing those aspects above the students
will be able to practice their speaking ability in real communication and
situation.
Furthermore, Haris in Chaundhary (1997)
mentions some components that should be known by the students in speaking
ability. The components involve pronunciation (segmental features, vowels and
consonants, stress and intonation pattern), grammar, vocabulary, fluency,
comprehension.
In
other side, Harmer (2001:269) says that there are some elements necessary for
spoken production. The first element is connected speech. The effective speaker
of English needs to be able not only to produce the individual phoneme of
English but also to use fluent connected speech. In connected speech sounds are
modified, omitted, added, or weakened. Because of that the students should know
this connected speech to make them able to speak well. The second element is
expressive devices. It involves the pitch and stress of particular parts of
utterances, vary volume and speed.
The
use of these devices contributes to the ability to convey meaning. The third
element is lexis and grammar. The students should be familiar with variety of
grammar and lexical phrases used in speaking. It will influence their speaking
ability in real communication. The last element is negotiation language.
Effective speaking gets benefit from the negotiatory language used to seek
clarification and to show the structure of what are saying.
Based
on the theories above, it can be concluded that there are some components which
should be known by the students in speaking ability. The components are
vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, fluency, and comprehension. The students
should have knowledge about these components in order to be able to speak
foreign language. So, they will be able to perform their speaking ability
better.
This
means making decisions rapidly, implementing them smoothly, and adjusting our
conversation as unexpected problems appear in our path. (Bygate, 1987:3). The
skill as comprising two components: production skills and interaction skills,
both of which can be affected by two conditions: firstly, processing
conditions, taking into consideration the fact that ‘a speech takes place under
the pressure of time’; secondly, reciprocity conditions connected with a mutual
relationship between the interlocutors (Bygate, 1987:7).
To
sum it up, there are two basic aspects that distinguish when considering the
skill of speaking. These include the knowledge of the language and the skill in
using this knowledge. The knowledge of producing the language has to be used in
different circumstances as they appear during a conversation by means of the
skill. The ability to use the knowledge requires two kinds of skills, according
to Bygate – production skills, and interaction skills.
Harmer
(2001) in Erik vilimec (2006:6) thesis states , when discussing the elements of
speaking that are necessary for fluent oral production, distinguishes between
two aspects – knowledge of ‘language features’, and the ability to process
information on the spot, it means ‘mental/social processing’.
The
first aspect, language features, necessary for spoken production involves,
according to Harmer, the following features: connected speech, expressive
devices, lexis and grammar, and negotiation language. For a clearer view of
what the individual features include, here is a brief overview:
a.
connected speech –
conveying fluent connected speech including assimilation, elision, linking ‘r’,
contractions and stress patterning – weakened sounds);
b.
expressive devices –
pitch, stress, speed, volume, physical – non-verbal means for conveying
meanings (supersegmental features);
c.
lexis and grammar – supplying common lexical
phrases for different functions (agreeing, disagreeing, expressing shock,
surprise, approval, etc.);
d.
negotiation language –
in order to seek clarification and to show the structure of what we are saying.
(Harmer 2001, 269-270).
In order to wage a successful
language interaction, it is necessary to realize the use of the language
features through mental/social processing – with the help of ‘the rapid
processing skills’ (Harmer, p.271).
Mental/social processing’ includes
three features – language processing, interacting with others, and on-the-spot
information processing. Again, to give a clearer view of what these features
include, here is a brief summary:
a.
language processing –
processing the language in the head and putting it into coherent order, which
requires the need for comprehensibility and convey of meaning (retrieval of
words and phrases from memory, assembling them into syntactically and
proportionally appropriate sequences);
b.
interacting with others – including listening,
understanding of how the other participants are feeling, a knowledge of how
linguistically to take turns or allow others to do so;
c.
on-the-spot information
processing – i.e. processing the information the listener is told the moment
he/she gets it. (Harmer 2001, 271)
Based on the explanation above, the
point of view the ability to wage oral communication, it is necessary that the
participant possesses knowledge of language features, and the ability to
process information and language on the spot. Language features involve four
areas – connected speech, expressive devices, lexis and grammar, and
negotiation language. Supposing the speaker possesses these language features,
processing skills, ‘mental/social processing’, will help him or her to achieve
successful communication goal. Processing skills include these languages
processing, interacting with others, and on-the-spot information processing.
2.2
The Purposes of Speaking
According to Penny (1996),states that
the purpose of speaking is to make students able to communicate with each
other. Therefore, learners are expected to be able to be proficient in speaking
the language that they learn. Furthermore, Lynch and Anderson (1992 in
Rosalina:2000:10), states that the purpose of speaking are; to achieve and
extend the learners linguistic competence, increase their confidence in using
spoken English, sharpen their strategic competence in face to face interaction,
and develop their ability to analyze and evaluate speaking performance. According
to Widdowson (1984) in Vega Dwi Adinda (2013:7) thesis states that speaking is
the active production skill and use oral production. The communication through
speaking is one language skill. Furthermore, speaking is one language skill.
Based on the skill, students can use their performance to express what they
feel and they think orally. Speaking does not only ideal with the use of
grammatical appropriate words but also with the expression to make the listener
understand about what is talked.
According Ellis and Sinclair (1989:9) in
Andi Indayani (2011) thesis state that speaking skill needs to be mastered by
using a standard assessment, propose that there are two cases in assessing
speaking. They are focusing accuracy and fluency. Accuracy concerns on
vocabulary, grammar, style, pronunciation of sound, stress, and intonation, while
fluency concerns on meaning and spontaneous. O’Malley (1995) and Hedge (2000)
propose that the most requirements of ideal speaking are fluency, grammatical
correct, and various vocabularies used. Arguing these criteria from the view of
successful speaking, Weir (1990) notes some requirements of good speaking. They
are accuracy, appropriacy, range, flexibilities, and size. While, Brown and
Yule (1996) identify the type of speech; the grammatical correctness,
appropriate vocabulary, fluency or pronunciation, and information transfer as
the standards of a successful speaking.
In line with these ideas, Brown and
Nation (1997) note that to have good speaking class a teacher should consider
several aspects. First, attention to the formal aspects of the spoken language;
second, opportunity and encouragement for learner to produce meaningful spoken
messages where the message have real communication goals; third, opportunity
for the learners to gain truly fluent use of what is already known. From the
discussion above, it seemed to be agreed that in speaking, accuracy of language
form and phonology as well the success of message transfer holds an equal
function to gain an ideal speaking.
2.3
The Components of Speaking.
Therefore, students must practice to speak English as often as
possible so that they are able to speak English fluently and accurately. A part
of that, to speak English, we have to know some important component. The
component is what aspects influencing how well people speak English. Here is
the component of speaking skill according to Syakur. According to Syakur (1987:
5), speaking is a complex skill because at least it is concerned with
components of grammar, vocabulary, comprehension, pronunciation, and fluently.
There are four aspects below have great influence in speaking ability :
2.3.1 Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the way for students to produce clearer language when
they are speaking. It means that the student can communicate effectively when
they have good pronunciation and intonation even though they have limited
vocabulary and grammar. Pronunciation refers to the traditional or customary
utterance of words. From that statement can be concluded that pronunciation is
the way for students to produce the utterance words clearly when they are speaking
(Kline, 2001:69).
English pronunciation does not amount to mastery of a list of sounds
or isolated words. Instead, it amounts to learning and practicing the
specifically English way of making a speaker’s thoughts easy to follow
(Gilbert, 2008:1). Moreover, pronunciation includes all those aspects of speech
which make for an easily intelligible flow of speech, including segmental
articulation, rhythm, intonation and phrasing, and more peripherally even
gesture, body language and eye contact (Fraser, 2001:6). Based on the statement
above can be concluded that pronunciation includes many aspects that include
articulation, rhythm, intonation and phrasing, and more peripherally even
gesture, body language and eye contact.
2.3.2
Grammar
Grammar is needed for the students to arrange correct sentences in
conversation both in written and oral forms. Grammar is defined as a systematic
way of accounting for and predicting an ideal speaker’s or hearer’s knowledge
of the language. This is done by a set of rules or principles that can be used
to generate all well-formed or grammatical utterances in the language (Purpura,
2004:6). Moreover, the other definition of grammar stated by Greenbaum and
Nelson (2002:1) argue that Grammar refers to the set of rules that allow us to
combine words in our language into larger units.
The grammar of a language is the description of the ways in which
words can change their forms and can be combined into sentences in that
language (Harmer, 2001:12). Thus, from the statements above can be concluded
that the function of grammar is to arrange the correct meaning of sentences
based on the context; in addition, it is used to avoid misunderstanding in each
communicator.
Moreover, Nelson (2001:1) states that grammar is the study of how
words combine to form sentences. Thus from statement above can be concluded
that grammar is a rule that is needed for the students to combine correct
sentences in conversation both in written and oral forms. Grammar refers to the
fundamental principles and structure of the language, including clear and
correct sentence construction and the proper forms of words (Batko, 2004:24).
2.3.3
Vocabulary
Vocabulary is essential for successful second language use because
without an extensive vocabulary, we will be unable to use the structure and
function we may have learnt for comprehensible communicative. It can be said
that one key the success in communicative, which is the power of words.
Vocabulary means the appropriate diction or the most important thing in a
language especially in speaking; furthermore, knowing many vocabularies we will
be easier to express our ideas, feeling and thoughts both in oral or written
form. In spoken language, the vocabulary tends to be familiar and everyday
(Turk, 2003:87). It means that in spoken language or speaking, the vocabulary
used must be very familiar and it is used in everyday conversation in order to
understand the spoken discourse. Vocabulary is a basic building block of
language learning. Students need to know words, their meanings, how they are
spelt and how they are pronounced. Thus, when teaching vocabulary, the teachers
have to make sure that they explain the meaning as well as the spelling and
pronunciation.
Vocabulary is the knowledge of meanings of words. What complicates
this definition is the fact that words come in at least two forms: oral and
written. Oral vocabulary is the set of words for which we know the meanings
when we speak or read orally. Written vocabulary consists of those words for
which the meaning is known when we write or read silently. These are important
distinctions because the set of words that beginning readers know are mainly
oral representations. As they learn to read, written vocabulary comes to play
an increasingly larger role in literacy than does the oral vocabulary (Hiebert
and Kamil, 2005:3). Moreover, Vocabulary is a set of lexemes including single
words, compound words and idioms (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:580).
2.3.4
Fluency
Fluency is defined as the ability to speak
communicatively, fluently and accurately. Fluency usually refers to express
oral language freely without interruption. In teaching and learning process, if
the teacher wants to check students’ fluency, the teacher allows students to
express themselves freely without interruption. The aim is to help students
speak fluently and with ease. The teacher does not correct immediately whereas
the idea being that too much correction interferes with the flow of
conversation (Pollard, 2008:16).
According to Hughes (1992) Fluency: it
includes the ease and speed of the flow of speech. Sight of fluency includes a
reasonable fast speed if speaking and only a small number or pause and “ums”
and “ers”. These sign indicate that the speakers does not have to spend a lot
of time searching for the language items needed to express the message. So, in
reproducing words in speaking ability. Its important to having the capability
of other components of speaking
2.4 Teaching
of Speaking
Being
able to communicate is extremly important in everyone’s life. People
communicate most of thye time orally. Today, pupil’s languange is considered
succsessful if they can speak effectively in their second or foreign languange
(Stood, 1998; Hennhings, 1989; Anwar, 1997; De Porto, 1997; Kaplan, 1997, 1997;
Rudder 1999). The Egyptian EFL syllabus for the preparatory stage is designed
to consolidate and build on the achievement of learners based on Primary stage.
So, all the skills are introduced: listening, speaking, reading, and writing
(Dallas,2005:45)
However,
speaking is in many ways an underdeveloped skill. The direct cause may be
rooted in teaching it self. In EFL classes, pupils are given few opportunities
to practice speaking. They are there to listen much more than to speak. So they
fall into the habit of using their ears and eyes instead of their mouths. Even
worse, speaking is not included in English languange tests. Emphasis is
generally put on marking individuals words, sentences and drilling pn mini
dialouges at the neglect of training in longer discourses (Anwar, 1997:42).
Nunan
(2003:15) defines the meaning of “teaching speaking” as teaching ESL learners
to: (1) Produce the English speech sound and sound patters; (2) Use words and
sentences stress, intonation patterns and the rythim of the second languange;
(3) Select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social
setting, audience, situation abd subject matter; (4) Organize their thought in
a meaningful of logical sequence; (5) Use languange as a means of expressing
values and judgement; (6) Use the languange quickly and condfidently with few
unnutual pauses, which is called as fluency (2003:35).
2.5
Carousel Brainstorming
Generating
the idea is a grand way to pull out students and to make them thinking and this
Carousel Brainstorming Feedback is the proper technique to make students be
active in learning English especially speaking.
2.5.1 Definition of Carousel
Brainstorming
Carousel Brainstorming
is a questioning technique used to generated lots of idea in response to
different style questions, to promote group work and to allow for physical
movement. According to Susan
Rubel (Connecticut:2012) A carousel brainstorm allows you to have students pull
out and think about what they know about subtopics within a larger topics.
Carousel Brainstorming is a cooperative learning
activity that can be used both to discover and discuss background knowledge
prior to studying a new topic, as well as for review of content already
learned. This technique allow for small group discussion, followed by
whole-class reflections. Andi Stix (2002) also propose that the Carousel Brainstorming technique is easy
to implement. Each cooperative group walks up to an open-ended question posted on chart paper,
discusses it, brainstorms answers or solutions, and writes down responses
within a given amount of time. When the teacher “carousels” students, or
rotates the groups to new locations, they repeat the exercise with a new
question.
According to
Guzzardo and Barry (2006:1), Carousel is a technique that provides an
opportunity for students to work in groups to discuss and chart their current
understanding of key issues, problems, and concepts while recalling facts,
beliefs, information, and key understandings. In other words, this technique is
a cooperative learning. The students are divided into a group in understanding
about topic by using a chart that given by the teacher.
2.5.2
The Purpose of Using Carousel Brainstorming
As known all the strategies of have purpose while
using the strategies, it same as if we use this strategy, the purpose of this
strategy is, carousel brainstorming used to get everyone involved in the
generation of ideas. It provides an opportunity to make sure that everyone is
aware all the ideas that are generated because it relies on group. Carousel
Brainstorming is useful in involving all participants in an issue and in
capturing innovative ideas or piggy backing on other people’s suggestion. It is
inclusive process as everyone can contribute and share in the process. Carousel
brainstorming is a technique that requires students to access background
knowledge or review what they have learned by thinking about subtopics within a
broader topic. The specific purposes of the
Carousel Brainstorm are the following: Assessing Knowledge, Needs, Interests,
and Attitudes, Building a Common Vocabulary, Collecting and Analyzing Data,
Exploring Multiple Perspective, Reflecting on Practice, Starting Conversations,
Structuring Learning and Tapping Prior Knowledge and Beliefs.
2.5.3 Procedure of Carousel
Brainstorming
According to
Lipton and Wellman (1998:1) the procedure of Carousel Technique are: 1)
Generate number of questions for your topic of study and write each question on
a separate piece of poster board or chart paper; 2) Divide your students into
groups of 5 or less will rotate around the room during this activity; 3) Direct
each group to stand in front of a question station. Give each group a colored
marker for writing their ideas at the question stations; 4) Inform groups that
have of minutes to brainstorm and write ideas at each question station. Usually
2-3 minutes is sufficient. Numbering the stations will make this easy for
students to track. Group 1 would rotate to question station 2; Group 2 would
rotate to question station 3 and so on; 5) Using a stopwatch or other timer,
begin the group rotation. Continue until each group reaches their last question
station; 6) before leaving the final question station, have each group select
the top 3 ideas from their station to share with the entire class.
2.5.4
The Effect of Carousel Brainstorming
In Carousel
Brainstorming, its takes it names from the old time merry go round where riders
went round and round in the circles. In this classroom strategy, small group
travel together to various stations to brainstorm ideas related to identified
topics. The purpose is to foster a generative discussion where a range of
ideas/perspective are laid out.
In
Carousel Brainstorming technique, some number of stations are set up with
similar tasks. Small group spent a finite amount of time adding to the
brainstorm lists. The first group has a clean slate and then as groups move to
a next station their job is to review what is already there and add to it or
refine it.
2.6 Past
Studies
The relevant research is required to observe some
previous researches conducted by other researchers in which they are relevant to
this research. Besides, we have to analyze what
the point focused on informing the design, finding and conclusion of the
research. First research has been conducted is from Merri Susanti (2012) “The
Effect of Using Carousel Technique
Toward Students’ Reading Comprehension at the Second Grade Students of SMPN 1
Padang Ganting”. In this research, the researcher used Quasi Experimental
research. Design of the research used Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design.
In addition, in this research, the experimental
group which was treated by using Carousel technique
and a control group which was treated by using Question Answers Relationship
Strategy. Each variable had cause and effect relationship. There were Carousel technique
as independent variable which gave effect or treatment to another variable, and
reading comprehension as dependent variable which was affected by other
variable. From the research finding, the researcher concludes that Carousel technique
was more effective to be applied in teaching reading than Question-Answer
Relationship Strategy was 2.26 than t-table 2.00 at the degree of freedom 58
and at the level of significance 0.05. It can concluded that Carousel technique
gives positive effect toward students reading comprehension because t- test is
bigger than t – table. So, the hypothesis is accepted.
This
research is different from the previous research, the researcher use carousel
brainstorming as technique to know students speaking
ability. The researcher will focuses on measure four components of speaking (Pronunciation,
grammar, vocabulary, and fluency). The researcher used speaking scoring aspect
by Brown (2010) as instrument to analyze
the data from students speaking ability 
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